Evolution of Roman Religion – From Polytheism to Christianity DOCUMENTARY

Kings and Generals’ historical animated documentary series on the history of Rome and ancient civilizations continues with the second video on the Roman religion. We will talk about the religious practices of Rome before the Greeks, how the Romans adopted the Greek gods and how the Roman religion was Hellenized, how the Ancient Romans deified their rulers as well in the form of the Imperial Cult, but they had a unique approach towards the concept compared to other Empires that preceded and followed them. So how did the Roman rulers became God-Emperors? And how did Christianity took over Rome despite all the persecutions?

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What Happened In Rome After Caesar’s Assassination: https://youtu.be/jfBsb_-h-_M
Battle of Mutina: https://youtu.be/3Qdi0VUOn3Q
Octavian and Antony: the Monsters: https://youtu.be/D9duJSBBs14
Caesar in Gaul: https://youtu.be/LRV185XaMIM
Caesar against Pompey: https://youtu.be/_O5DshzvUsk
How Caesar Won the Great Roman Civil War: https://youtu.be/o8F8IajtW9U
What Happened In Rome After Caesar’s Assassination: https://youtu.be/jfBsb_-h-_M
Medieval Battles: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLaBYW76inbX46r95D4BjCxiJz7-OeyOtW
Roman History: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLaBYW76inbX6WrNCeL_AdR36ZIODiGNzq
Rise of the Vandals: https://youtu.be/-IpbeEW6I9Y
Marcus Aurelius: https://youtu.be/cLtDWIsOs1E
Aurelian: https://youtu.be/YQHNaemGOoI
Commodus: https://youtu.be/nVW5RJj6CTo
Claudius: https://youtu.be/bPbZFzJpSY4
Sejanus: https://youtu.be/f2iFXVdkw4w
Milvian Bridge: https://youtu.be/VbFtMXytMj8
Origins of the Germanic Tribes: https://youtu.be/_KFzDlhT6bs
Julian and battle of Strasbourg: https://youtu.be/ZshHmtmtsDs Arminius: https://youtu.be/logbxY7_FCw
Cimbrian War: https://youtu.be/5FpcDpYBFW8
Teutoburg: https://youtu.be/imEyKWMDM2o
How the Fall of Rome Transformed the Mediterranean: https://youtu.be/32a6sAvi2j8

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Script: David Muncan
Animation: Lucas Salatiel
Illustration: Lucas Salatiel
Narration: Officially Devin (https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCU0-VII-V376zFxiRGMeZGg & https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC79s7EdN9uXX77-Ly2HmEjQ)

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Production Music courtesy of Epidemic Sound: http://www.epidemicsound.com

#Religon #Documentary #RomanHistory

Throughout history, religion has been a core  pillar of most human societies. This was also   true for the ancient Romans. Although the Roman  Empire was known as a bastion of Christianity   for the last millennium of its existence, it  is better known for the polytheistic religions  

That preceded it. From the patricians, to  the plebeians and the lowliest of slaves,   the Roman people were deeply religious. They  honored many gods and strived to be pious,   so as to appease them and not make their own  lives more difficult. Welcome to our video on  

The evolution of religion in Roman society:  From the earliest Roman religious practices   to the Greek influence to the rise of the  emperors and the adoption of Christianity. This video is made available for free thanks to  our Youtube Members and Patrons. We fund our free  

Content through our program of exclusive  videos made for our members and patrons,   who get two documentaries per  week not available to the public. We’ve got a growing collection featuring  the First Punic War, the History of Prussia,   the Italian Unification Wars,  and a review of the classic text:  

Xenophon’s Anabasis. We’re now covering the  Russo-Japanese War and Albigensian Crusades, not   to mention our massive Pacific War week by week  coverage, and a massive pool of other projects. All this is made for, and with generous  donations from, our backers. So if you’re  

Enjoying our content and want to both see  more and support the cause of history,   consider becoming a youtube member or patron.  You’ll also get early access to public content,   a spot in our lively discord server,  and behind the scenes info and goodies.

We rely on our backers to support our  growing team pumping out these videos,   so thank you to everyone already involved,  and we hope you’ll consider joining in too.  As Rome conquered new lands, many different  peoples became part of the state, and their  

Beliefs and customs influenced the Roman  religion itself. Indeed, the most well-known   form of the ancient Roman religion was in itself  an amalgamation of mostly the old Roman faith,   the Etruscan religion, and Greek polytheism  – most notably the latter. The primeval  

Roman religion was very different from the  cast of Gods we associate with Rome today,   which would be the one influenced by the Greek’s  Olympian pantheon. The point at which the original   Roman faith begins falling under intensive  Greek influence and drastically transforming  

Into its recognizable shape is a matter of  scholarly debate. Most historians, however,   speculate that the religion began evolving in that  direction at some point during the 4th century BC.   At that point, the Romans had conquered most  of their non-Greek neighbors in the Italian  

Peninsula, and without Etruscan and Campanian  influences keeping a certain balance, the Greek   religion had become the dominant outside factor. Most of the information which exists about the   Roman faith before its deep syncretism with  the Greek Pantheon was written much later,  

By men like the 1st century BC historian  Livy. These records are generally unreliable:   It is possible that these Roman writers may have  purposefully omitted less than ideal details   about Rome’s cultural past, while alternatively,  knowledge of these archaic Roman rites may have  

Been lost to time by the late Republican era.  Direct historical sources on Rome’s earliest   period are scarce, and all that exists from  that age are a handful of difficult epigraphical   texts and scant archeological evidence. The origins of the Roman religion are  

As obscure as its foundation and early history,  but we can glean clues of how it functioned and   developed by observing the archeological record.  In Latium in the 10th and 9th centuries BC, there   is no evidence of organized religion, images of  gods or even the existence of temples and priests.  

Nevertheless, some forms of rituals were present,  as places for sacrifices are commonly found. In   those places, looms, ceramic bowls and other  items of everyday use were gathered. Additionally,   with the spread of cremation and urn cultures  to Italy, burial grounds and necropolises  

Started appearing in the sterritory of Rome as  well. By the late 7th and early 6th centuries,   however, burials had become increasingly rare,  having been replaced by public buildings.  As the Iron Age continued, Greeks started  colonizing the Italian peninsula, all the while  

The Phoenicians and Cypriots started spreading  their trade routes to ever more distant parts of   the Mediterranean. The influence of these cultures  on Roman religious practices can be seen as early   as the 8th century BC. The aforementioned burials  became extravagant, particularly in so-called  

Princely burials, such as the great tombs of  Praeneste outside of the city of Rome. This early   Greek and Phoenician impact on Roman religion was  as much economical as it was cultural. The trade   that they had facilitated greatly increased Rome’s  prosperity and led to rising levels of luxury,  

Especially among the ruling elites. Other major sites that coincide with   the expansion of Greek and Phoenician influence  are temple complexes at Satricum and St. Omobono.   The religious significance of St. Omobono can be  seen even to this day, as a Christian church is  

Present at the site. Meanwhile, the temple  at Satricum was dedicated to Mater Matuta,   the predecessor of the goddess of dawn, Aurora.  It is also evident that temples had communicated   with each other, as the one at St. Omobono was  dedicated to the goddess Fortuna, the partner of  

Mater Matuta. The temple at Satricum is surrounded  by large buildings which archeologists believe to   be dining halls. Communal dining spaces adjacent  to cultic sites were present in the Greek world,   further indicating the rise of Greek influence  in Rome. As Roman society and politics developed  

In the first centuries after its founding,  religion also became increasingly complex.  Much like the early Roman state and other aspects  of their religion, the gods themselves have   mysterious beginnings too. The English historian  H.S. Rose states that the Roman gods may have  

Evolved from more primitive religious views.  According to him, supernatural and divine acts,   or a very divine presence, were given the name  numen. The direct translation of numen is “that   which is produced by nodding” – in a less literal  sense meaning an act that represents the product  

Or expression of power. Since numen is found in  a variety of places, it is attached to a myriad   of phenomena, things and even people. For a large  period of time, before the religion became more   organized, the numen was a personal affair for  every Roman, rather than possessing any collective  

Identity. According to H.S. Rose “If they were  strong, and especially if they were regular in   their occurrence, the natural conclusion would  be that they were produced by a kind of person   who had much numen and was ready to display it  for the benefit of those who approached him in  

The right manner”. This “person” is believed to  have gradually evolved into one of the many Roman   gods and goddesses, however, that evolution was  slow. In accordance with this theory, early on,   Jupiter was nothing more than a flint and  Mars was represented by a simple spear. As  

To why the Roman gods started out this way and  were only later given human characteristics,   Rose simply states that it was due to a lack  of artistic maturity within Roman culture.  Another thing worth mentioning about the  early Roman religion is its apparent lack  

Of an expansive mythology, such as the one  that the Greeks and Indians had created for   their gods. Due to lack of evidence, it is  difficult to say whether the mythology was   forgotten and lost to time or whether the  Romans had simply never created one in the  

First place. This is another reason why it  is deemed possible that the Roman gods did   not initially possess human characteristics.  At the end of the Etruscan period, when the   three Capitoline gods were united in a single  temple, it wasn’t even certain that Jupiter  

And Juno were even seen as husband and wife. Some of the old Roman gods have received more   detailed mythologies after the Romans started  modeling their religion after the Greek one.   Nevertheless, several important gods did not  receive the same attention, and their mythologies  

Remain mostly unknown. For example, Quirinus,  who is believed to be the opposite of Mars,   is today sometimes even misidentified with him.  Though the worship of Quirinus became nearly   extinct by the time of the Empire, the Roman  hill named after him, the Quirinal, continued  

To be considered one of the most important places  in the country. Mars, as an exception to the rule,   went through relatively little change, unlike the  majority of the other gods. His role was perpetual   and stable, the typical role of a war god. A goddess whose importance likewise dwindled  

As the centuries passed is the aforementioned  Mater Matuta. This primordial “mother figure”   goddess held great importance during  Rome’s early days. During her feast day,   the Matralia, women that were married for the  first time would gather and feast together,  

After which, they would ask for blessings for  their children and the children of the other   women that participated. She is generally believed  to be the goddess of dawn and that she was later   made equivalent to Aurora. One myth surrounding  her has been recovered and George Dumezil recounts  

It in his book “Archaic Roman religion” – “Dawn  suckles or licks the child who either belongs   to herself and her sister Night in common or  to that sister alone. Thanks to this care,   this child, the Sun, which has emerged from the  womb of Night, arrives at the maturity of day”. 

One of the things which the archaic and late Roman  religion had in common was that Jupiter was the   principal god. Although Rome’s Capitoline triad  of gods consisting of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva   is well known, the hierarchy of the gods was very  different in Rome’s early days. The so-called  

Archaic triad consisted of Jupiter, Mars and  Quirinus. Initially, Jupiter is believed to have   been a sky god and the master of the thunderbolt.  Unlike his Greek counterpart, Zeus, Jupiter seems   to have been much more down to Earth. Zeus, as the  grandson of heaven, remained fully celestial and  

Retained a connection with the heavenly bodies.  On the other hand, in the early Roman religion,   there was little interest in the Sun and moon  and virtually none at all in the stars and the   firmament. It is also speculated that Jupiter was  the master of rain, with the ritual of Nudipedalia  

And the ritual of lapis manalis, both intended  to bring rain, being connected with him. As god   of the sky, he was also deeply involved with the  process of augury, something which can be seen   from a legend dating to the very founding of Rome. Before Rome was even founded, Romulus and Remus  

Could not even agree about the place where  they would build the city. Remus proposed the   Aventine hill, as it was easy to defend, while  Romulus recommended the much less strategically   viable Palatine hill. Unable to come to an  agreement, the two of them decided to test  

Their skills of augury. While Remus only saw six  vultures, Romulus saw 12 on his side. Therefore,   the heart of Rome was built on the Palatine hill. Another famous legend surrounding Jupiter and   Rome’s early days are the negotiations between the  god and Rome’s second King, Numa Pompilius. In the  

Myth, Jupiter asks for a sacrifice – “Cut off a  head”, to which Numa replies, “an onion”. Jupiter   rejoins with “A man’s”, without mentioning the  head again. The King, seeing another opportunity,   answers with “A man’s hair”. Jupiter once again  repeats his mistake and demands, “A life”. Numa,  

Unwavering to the very end, interrupts with “of  a fish”. As a result, Jupiter rewarded Numa for   his shrewdness and did not ask for anything  more. This myth also illustrates the attitude   of the Romans in their religious and social life.  According to George Dumezil, the Romans strived  

“to speak without imprudence, to say nothing  and above all to use no formula by which the   god or his human spokesman might benefit at his  expense, nothing which would irritate the god,   or which might be misconstrued or misunderstood”. Speaking of the legendary king Numa,  

The establishment of most of ancient Rome’s  religious institutions are attributed to him.   One of the most famous of such institutions  are the Vestal Virgins – priestesses of Vesta,   which tended to the fire of Vesta. Vesta was  the goddess of the hearth and it was believed  

That while her fire burned, Rome would be  immortal. In case the fire ever went out,   it was forbidden for it to be relighted with the  flames from another fire. Instead, a new fire   was created by the Vestal Virgins. Although Numa  may have established the Vestal Virgins in Rome,  

The cult itself is believed to be much older. In  fact, some sources state that Romulus and Remus’   mother was a priestess of Vesta in Alba Longa.  That being said, she most likely was not a virgin.  The Roman calendar is also believed to have been  established by king Numa. This calendar consisted  

Of 355 days, with a biennial addition of 22 days.  On average, this calendar was extremely precise   for those times. Numa Pompilius is also credited  with having established Rome’s priesthood. The   official highest title in the Roman priesthood  was that of rex sacrorum. The rex sacrorum made  

A sacrifice on the Kalends of each month, and  announced the respective month’s festivals on   the Nones. Following the rex sacrorum, the next  most powerful priests were the Flamines Dialis,   Martialis and Quirinalis – the high priests  of Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. The position  

Of pontifex maximus was only 5th in this religious  hierarchy, however, for most of Rome’s existence,   it had the most power. Whether the  pontifex maximus was envisioned to   be the most powerful from the very beginning, or  whether the position acquired its power at some  

Point in later centuries, it is not yet known. One interesting topic, which is unfortunately   still relatively unknown, is the relationship  between the early Roman state and the many   domestic Lares and Penates. Every home had  its own such deities – the Lares were often  

Envisaged as guardians of Rome, while the  Penates were identified with sacred objects   brought to Latium from Troy by Aeneas. Another thing worth mentioning is that the   Etruscan influence on the Roman religion could  very well be greater than the Greek influence.  

It is speculated that during the rule of the  Tarquin kings of Rome, who were of Etruscan   origin, the Roman religion adopted many Etruscan  properties. Even the Capitoline triad of Jupiter,   Juno and Minerva could have been derived from the  Etruscan triad of Tinia, Uni and Minrva. However,  

Since the Etruscan religion also came under heavy  Greek influence, this may all be a moot point.  Just like every other world religion, the Roman  religion changed and evolved heavily during the   course of its existence. Despite the fact  that the Greek pantheon had an overwhelming  

Influence on the Roman one, the two of them  were not identical. The Roman people had   their own unique beliefs and the more we  uncover about the origins of their faith,   the more we can learn about their history as well. Greek culture had always been in Rome’s general  

Neighborhood, with the Hellenes having set up  colonies in Southern Italy as early as the 8th   century BCE. By the 4th century BC, Rome had  emerged as the biggest player in the peninsula,   coming to dominate other Italian peoples like  the Etruscans and the Samnites, and by the 3rd  

Century BCE, had brought the Hellenes of Magna  Graecia into their domain. Consequently, educated   Greeks slaves were taken in by Roman families to  serve as tutors, introducing new generations of   Roman children to the Greek religion. Considering  the fact that Hellenic culture in Greece proper  

Was reaching its apex during the 3rd century,  it is of no surprise that the Roman religion   came under such extensive Greek influence. The impact of Greek religion on Latin beliefs   can be observed in the transformative effect it  had on the mythological canon surrounding Roman  

Gods. While the early Romans had some mythology  in their religion, the overwhelming majority   of it was concerned not with their Gods, but  with their mortal founders, Romulus and Remus,   and the second king, Numa Pompilius. As we have  mentioned previously, early Roman gods did not  

Have any specific personalities or relationships  with each other, and it is uncertain whether   they were even depicted with anthropomorphic  human forms. On the other hand, the Greeks   had a well-developed and expansive mythology  dating back as far as the previous millennium. 

As such, Romans began identifying their Gods  with the Greek ones, and used Greek mythological   canon to answer new questions about their Gods’  aspects and personalities previously left blank   by older Roman folklore. Similar to Zeus, Jupiter  became the god of the sky, wielding thunderbolts  

And having an eagle as a companion. Juno was  his sister-wife and the goddess of fertility,   wealth and community – in essence she was the  equivalent of Hera. The last of the Capitoline   triad, Minerva, was equated to the Greek goddess  of wisdom and strategy, Athena. Other Greek gods  

Became the basis for their Roman counterparts  as well – Neptune became the Roman version of   Poseidon, Mars became the equivalent of  Ares, Dis Pater the equivalent of Hades,   and so on. The Divine twins of Greek mythology  were also directly adopted by the Romans,  

Retaining their original names – Castor and  Pollux. The Dioscuri, as they were known,   were the patrons of sailors and appeared to men  at sea through a weather phenomenon known today   as St. Elmo’s fire. For the Romans, they were  also connected with hospitality and horsemanship. 

One notable exception to all of these parallels  is Apollo. Apollo was not given a Roman “identity”   but was treated instead as he was in Greek  mythology. This may be due to the fact that   the Romans had already known of Apollo from as  early as the 6th century BC, with there being a  

Shrine or temple dedicated to him in Rome at the  time. The myth surrounding the arrival of Apollo   in Rome is connected to the Sybil of Cumae.  During the reign of Rome’s last king, Tarquin,   the Sybil of Cumae, who presided over the oracle  of Apollo, arrived in Rome. She brought with  

Her 9 books of prophecy and offered to sell  them to Tarquin. Deeming her price too high,   the king refused. The Sybil promptly burned  6 of the 9 books and at that point, Tarquin   reconsidered. He bought the remaining three. The  Romans consulted these books in times of crises.  

They were, however, when, a millenia later, the  western half of the Empire collapsed in 476AD.  Although it is easy to assume that, at some  point, the Roman gods became exact copies of   their Greek counterparts, the reality was slightly  different. In spite of their identification with  

The Greek gods, Roman gods still had far less  elaborate and colorful mythologies. For example,   there is relatively little known about Jupiter’s  childhood, whereas Zeus’ childhood is known in   detail. Jupiter’s proclivity for sexual escapades  is also less emphasized than his Greek parallel.  

This is not due to the fact that the Romans lacked  the creativity to add those stories, but due to   a lack of interest. Ever the pragmatists, the  Romans were not particularly interested in the   gods’ personalities and what their origins were.  Instead, they focused on pietas – piety. For the  

Romans, their priority when it came to religion  was that they perform their duties towards the   gods as correctly as possible in order to appease  them and receive good fortune. As for morality,   the Romans did not derive it from the  dogma of their religion. Nevertheless,  

They still had certain norms as to what can be  considered appropriate and inappropriate behavior.  Another way by which the Greeks influenced  the Roman religious landscape was their   contributions in jumpstarting the popularity  of many local cults devoted to foreign Gods,  

Both Greek in origin, or from further afield in  Africa and Asia. The most notable of these cults   were the cults of Mithra, Bacchus, Cybele, Isis  and Serapis. Some of them did quite well. Cybele,   a mother goddess from Asia Minor, found its way  to Rome after spreading throughout the Greek  

World. Initially, the cult was banned due to some  unsavory practices, such as the castration of its   priests, but the Romans adopted her cult after the  Sybilline oracle recommended doing so in 205 BC,   renaming her as Magna Mater. Magna Mater was  later reinvented as a Trojan goddess, giving  

Her a great amount of legitimacy. Other cults did  not see the same success. The cult of Bacchus was   extremely popular at the end of the 3rd and  beginning of the 2nd century BC. His cult was   most likely derived from Dionysus, the Greek god  of wine. Followers of the Bacchus cult regularly  

Engaged in hedonistic acts. Bacchus’ festival, the  Bacchanalia was a period of great disinhibition   and depravity. In fact, the word Bacchanalia is  used for acts of debauchery to this very day in   many languages. In 186 BC, the Roman senate  decided that the cult was dangerous and had a  

Corruptive influence on Roman society. The cult of  Bacchus was subsequently suppressed and as many as   4000 people in Italy were executed in the purges. As Greek influence protruded deep into every crack   of Roman religion and myth, it also came to  influence how the Romans understood their own  

History as the cornerstone of Greek mythology,  the Iliad, was woven into the founding of Rome   itself. According to Roman mythology, the Homeric  hero Aeneas came to Latium after the fall of Troy   and married the daughter of a local king. Their  descendants were the legendary founders of Rome.  

As Aeneas’s mother was thought to be Aphrodite, it  meant that Romulus and Remus were also descended   from the Greek counterpart to Venus. Aeneas also  is said to have brought with him the Palladium,   a cult image of Minerva (Athena). This Palladium  represented one of Rome’s pignora imperii, or  

Pledges of rule in English. They were supposed to  guarantee the continued power of Rome. An object   believed by the Romans to be that very Palladium  was kept in the inner sanctum of the temple of   Vesta. Indeed, these relations between humans  and gods did not stop there. Servius Tullius, one  

Of the kings of Rome, was thought to have been a  lover of the goddess Fortuna, the Roman equivalent   of Tyche. Julius Caesar, tracing his roots back  to Aeneas, was also stylized as a descendant   of Venus, the goddess of love and beauty. Let us take a brief aside to talk about religious  

Architecture: Contrary to popular belief, Roman  temples were not overly similar to Greek temples.   The only noticeable Greek influence on Roman  temples is the columns. The arches, however,   were usually built in the older Etruscan style.  Roman temples, though generally larger than Greek  

Ones, had much smaller inner chambers. This  is likely due to the fact that the insides of   Roman temples were not accessible to the wider  populace, as public ceremonies were generally   outside. The temples were also considered to be  the dwellings of the gods themselves, so it is of  

No surprise that only a select few were allowed  to enter. Temples in Rome were sacred places,   but it is worth noting that what the Romans  considered sacred may differ from what people in   the modern world consider sacred. For the Romans,  anything action, secular or religious, that was  

Done for Rome or its people was considered sacred.  As such, government and faith blended seamlessly,   as the senate would occasionally hold meetings in  a Roman temple if the topic discussed concerned   the god or gods in question. State economics  were also bound up in state spiritualism,  

As the Roman treasury was housed in the temple  of Saturn, the god of time, wealth and abundance.  With the evolution of the Roman Republic  and the city of Rome, the Roman religion’s   rituals underwent great expansion, refinement and  improvement. The Roman gods became more complex,  

And standards and norms became formalized for  rituals regarding those gods both in state and   personal religious practice. Grand rituals  required a great number of participants and   people would flock from distant parts  of the realm to take part in them. 

The rituals could not be held if favorable  auspices were not observed by two persons   working in tandem. Both for public and private  religious matters, the ritual would start at the   beginning of the day. An exception to this  is sacrifices, which were considered magic,  

And usually took place at night and in secret. At  first, the celebrants would wash themselves and   put on their special ceremonial robes. Special  ceremonial robes, according to Roman rites,   consisted of a citizen toga, draped so that  the arms would be free and the head would be  

At least partially covered. Once all preparations  were complete, a procession of the faithful moved   towards the altar of the god that was to be  honored. The celebrants poured wine and incense   into a portable hearth. The hearth represented the  identity of the celebrants, indicating to the gods  

Who was honoring them at that specific ritual.  This part of the ritual is known as the praefatio.  The second part was known as immolatio, and  was when the actual sacrifice would take place.   The animal victims were usually cattle, pigs,  goats or sheep. In the vast majority of cases,  

The sex of the animal had to correspond to  the sex of the god. Most male gods required   a castrated male animal to be sacrificed, but  Mars, Janus and Neptune were offered beasts   with their genitalia intact. The gods of the  upper world received white furred animals,  

While gods of the underworld, like Dis, were  associated with dark coated animals. Plants,   liquids and incense were also considered suitable  sacrifices. The age of the animal victims depended   on whether it was a public or private ritual  and on the social standing of the celebrant.  

The animal’s back was sprinkled with a type  of salted flour known as mola salsa, and wine   was poured to run along its brow. The celebrant  then ran the sacrificial knife along its spine.   This represented a transfer of the animal from  human property, which the mola salsa represented,  

To the property of the gods, which the wine  represented. Once this transaction was completed,   a sacrificer would strike and bleed the animal.  If the animal showed any fear or panic during this   process, it would be considered an ill omen. Once  the animal was dead, it was placed on its sides  

And disemboweled. If the entrails were intact,  the sacrifice was accepted by the gods. In the   situation that there were abnormalities with  the entrails, the sacrifice would be annulled.   During certain rituals, the entrails would  also be inspected for the act of haruspicy. 

The entrails, which were considered to belong to  the gods, were subsequently cooked. Depending on   which gods were honored, those entrails were later  either burned in the altar’s sacrificial fire,   thrown into the sea if they were for an  aquatic God, or in a ditch if they were  

For a god of the underworld. This entire process  was accompanied by prayers, which unambiguously   specified who was conducting the sacrifice, who  was honored in the sacrifice, and what benefits   were expected from the sacrifice. After the  sacrifice, a sacrificial banquet would be held. 

As Roman religious rites became more and more  elaborate, the ability of powerful individuals   to leverage religious influence for political  power grew. As mentioned previously in this video,   the position of the Pontifex Maximus, or High  Priest, was the most powerful position in the  

Religious hierarchy of Rome, and by the time  of the 1st century BC, also came to represent   one of the most powerful positions in the Roman  Republic itself. Presiding over religious matters   meant that the pontifex Maximus also presided over  vast parts of Rome’s social life. Julius Caesar  

Used this power to fix a matter which had been  causing significant problems to the Roman state,   the calendar. In 46 BC, Caesar, together with  Sosigenes of Alexandria, devised one of the   most useful and precise calendars in history. The  basis of this calendar was the Egyptian calendar,  

Which consisted of 12 30-day months and an  additional 5 days in the end. This totaled   365 days. The 5 additional days were distributed  over some of the months. February, considered to   be an unlucky month, was also shortened by 2 days,  which were added to other months. Because they  

Calculated the actual length of the year to be 365  days, one day was added every 4th year. The dates   were still out of sync with this calendar,  so in order for it to be properly aligned,   Julius Caesar added another 3 intercalary months  to that year. This made 46 BC the longest year  

In history, standing at 445 days. The Julian  calendar, as it became known, represented one   of the most precise calendars in history, being  used to this day with only slight modifications.  The Roman religion underwent drastic changes  from its archaic form during the last half  

Of the 1st millennium BC. The Republic and its  expansion ensured that the religion would have   an organized structure and a deep influence on  Roman society, however, it also ensured that   the religion would be as inclusive as possible  towards the new people that joined the Roman  

Realm. By the time Julius Caesar had instated his  revolutionary calendar, the republic was already   on its deathbed. In the tumultuous decades that  followed, the Roman world and religion itself   would undergo even more drastic changes – changes  that could see mere mortal men become gods.

With the Roman Republic undergoing seemingly  endless territorial and economic expansion   in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BC, it also  entered a state of perpetual civil unrest   and political instability. The intrinsic system  of the Republic was designed so that no man or  

Faction would become too powerful, however, as  Rome’s power and territory grew, so too did the   power of certain outstanding individuals. This  disparity between theory and practice in Roman   society only grew wider after the military reforms  of Gaius Marius, which effectively ensured that  

Roman generals would command a great deal of  power. Ironically, it was Marius’ bitter rival,   Lucius Cornelius Sulla that made great use of  this situation. Sulla’s victory over Marius in the   first great civil war in the Republic’s history  positioned him as the first man of Rome. However,  

In spite of the fact that he used his newfound  dictatorial powers to change laws and purge   his enemies, he left the political institutions  of the Roman republic fundamentally unchanged.  Significant changes to the system may not have  been done, yet the Republic’s façade of stability  

Was permanently crippled. Indeed, it took not  even three decades for Rome to descend into   chaos again. Much like his predecessor Sulla,  Julius Caesar fought a civil war and became the   head of the Roman state. Be that as it may, this  is where the similarities between the two end.  

Unlike Sulla, Caesar had much greater ambitions,  and retiring to live a quiet life in the country   was not one of them. Whereas Sulla only went  as far as to be called “favored by Venus”,   Caesar had portrayed himself as a descendant  both of the goddess of love Venus and of  

Rome’s founder, Romulus. In doing so,  Caesar created a cult of worship around   himself which would become the foundation  of the deification of later Roman Emperors.  According to Ittai Gradel, there were three  phases in the creation of Caesar’s cult. After  

His victory at the battle of Thapsus in 46 BC,  the Senate decreed that a statue of him would   be placed on the Capitol, with an inscription  stating that he was a demigod. Caesar’s victory   at Munda was followed by the placement of  a statue of him in the temple of Quirinus,  

With the inscription reading that he was  an unconquered god. In the final stage of   Caesar’s cult, he was equated with Rome’s official  gods, with his cult being given an official name:   Divus Julius, as well as a priest and temple.  The last phase did not materialize, as Caesar  

Was assassinated on the ides of March, before his  flamen, Marc Antony, was inaugurated as priest.  Octavian, though quite young at the time  of Caesar’s death, was wise enough not to   follow in some of his stepfather’s footsteps.  Believing that Caesar’s incessant honoring of  

His own person was the cause of his undoing, he  steered clear of self-aggrandizement after his   rise to power. Octavian was planning to rule Rome  for slightly more than a few years, and approached   the matter of his spiritual legitimacy carefully  and patiently. In 29 BC, he dedicated a temple  

To Divus Julius at the site of Caesar’s cremation,  thereby cementing his position as Divi Filius, the   son of a god. While Octavian would not refer to  himself as a god openly during his entire reign,   he did little to hinder others from considering  him as such. It was this fine line that Octavian  

Walked in politics as well, never positioning  himself as a dictator or a pseudo monarch, but as   a Princeps, a primus inter pares. Agrippa intended  to dedicate a new temple on the Campus Martius to   the first princeps, with his cult image inside  it. Augustus prohibited Agrippa from carrying  

Out this plan, and the temple, later known as  the Pantheon, was dedicated to other purposes.  Two words which perfectly describe the Roman  religion after Octavian’s ascension to power   are tradition and innovation. Following nearly a  century of strife in Rome, Octavian had brought  

Long-desired peace. Since the Roman state and  religion were inherently linked, this was not just   an earthly peace but the peace of the gods. All of  the temples, shrines and buildings which Octavian   had rebuilt were not dedicated to himself.  Instead, he chose a rather subtle approach  

By ensuring that the people of Rome knew while the  buildings themselves weren’t made in honour, the   initiative to rebuild them had been his. Moreover,  these buildings were formally dedicated on dates   that were important to him, such as birthdays  and anniversaries of important victories.  Meanwhile, Octavian also expertly maneuvered  through Caesar’s controversial connection  

With Romulus and the Roman Kingdom. He restored  and reformed the old priesthood, which boasted   about its mythical connection with the founder of  the Eternal City, who was considered a divisive   figure during the late Republic, since Romulus had  been a King, and the Romans of the Republic hated  

Kings. Although Octavian would have loved nothing  more than to associate himself with Romulus, he   decided against it due to the fact that a monarchy  stood in stark contrast with everything that the   Republic, and therefore he, officially stood for. In the end, Octavian’s advisors discovered that  

He could be partially a god and a king, yet  neither at the same time. As Octavian had   restored the peace of the gods through “august  augury”, a divine technique that Romulus used   when founding the city, he was given the  honorific epithet Augustus, an adjective  

With substantial religious notes yet also  unburdened by any direct allusions to kingship.  Once Lepidus had died in 12 BC, Augustus formally  became pontifex maximus, a title that would become   hereditary after his death. He restored Rome’s  old priesthoods and also reorganized Rome’s  

Neighborhoods, or vici, in such a way that  the majority of the community leaders, or   vicomagistri, were freedmen and other commoners.  This made him extremely popular with Rome’s lower   classes and had a great influence on the Imperial  cult becoming a household and community cult. 

In Rome, Augustus respected the sentiments of  the senate and accepted a compromise that did   not allow him to directly establish a cult  for himself. The situation was completely   different outside of the city. Numerous local  cults that treated Augustus akin to a god are  

Believed to have been unofficially sponsored  by the state, however, in state religion,   Augustus was not officially deified preceding  his death. In fact, when writing about his death,   Tacitus makes no mention of Augustus as a god,  devoting only a minor remark about his burial,  

“once it had been completed according to custom,  a temple and rituals typical for celestial   beings were decreed.” These local cults were  enthusiastically accepted in the rest of Italy,   over time becoming household cults. One example  of this is Forum Clodii, in Northern Italy,  

Where inscriptions related to the cult make it  clear that they equated the worship of Augustus’   divinity to the worship of Augustus the god. Outside Italy, the situation differed in   each province and municipality. For the most  part, outside of Rome, Augustus was directly  

Worshiped as a deity, especially in the Greek  provinces, where the Imperial cult was viewed   as a continuation of the cults of the Hellenistic  rulers of Alexander’s Diadochi. Although people   generally did not directly equate him to the  existing pantheon of Roman gods, Augustus  

Was given godlike honors. When Augustus shared a  temple with other deities, the Greeks were careful   not to represent him as the gods’ equal. In peripheral provinces, such as Gallia   Lugdunensis and Germania Inferior, the Imperial  cult did not begin thriving until decades after  

It did in Italy, Spain or Asia Minor. However, due  to the strong military presence in those regions,   military commanders in those provinces would  occasionally establish shrines to Augustus,   which slowly introduced the people  of those areas to the Imperial cult. 

Before we continue, it is worth mentioning that  Emperor worship had nothing to do with personal   deities that could guide people to salvation. The  Roman religion was not a religion of salvation,   and the rituals of the religion were regarded with  much higher importance than the dogma. That being  

Said, it is possible that certain people viewed  Augustus as a deity who brought salvation from   many decades of war and instability. The Imperial  cult was also not exclusive to the Greco-Roman   religion, as worshippers of various other  pantheons in the Empire also honored the Emperors,  

Often more than the Romans themselves. One of  Augustus’ greatest legacies was that he left the   Roman state in a more unified condition than that  in which he had found it and scholars believe that   his cult was one of the driving forces behind it. Augustus was posthumously deified, which did not  

Change much for Rome’s religious landscape, owing  to the fact that Tiberius rigidly kept the system   that his predecessor had established. He not  only refused to be deified while still alive,   but also refused many of Augustus’ godlike honors.  Caligula’s accession was far more complicated,  

As he was chosen as a co-heir with Tiberius’  grandson, Tiberius Gemellus. Due to the fact   that Gemellus was still a child, the Senate had  rendered Tiberius’ will invalid. Under these   circumstances, Caligula could no longer claim  principate by the auctoritas inherited from  

Tiberius. Therefore, the senate had to invest  him with imperial powers by decree. This was,   in essence, the first formal admission of the  Roman state that it was, for the first time in   over five hundred years, once again a monarchy. Later in the same year, the senate had ordered  

That sacrifices should take place to honor the  new Emperor. Caligula, uncharacteristically,   refused this honor, as well as an offer to have  a state temple dedicated to himself. However,   later into his reign, his good relationship  with the senate, as well as his moderatio began  

Deteriorating heavily, and he began to humiliate  the very institution that had granted him this   power. There is no doubt about the fact that  Caligula endlessly emphasized his limitless power.   What is a matter of scholarly debate, however,  is whether he claimed to be a god or was simply  

An eccentric. For example, the writer Philo, views  Caligula’s tendency to dress up like certain gods   in public as an act of blasphemy, while Dio and  Suetonius view it as the comportment of a lunatic.   Archeological findings show absolutely no evidence  of Caligula ever being deified by the Roman state,  

Which is in contrast with the modern view of  him as a megalomaniac. Nevertheless, most future   emperors steered clear of any dalliances with the  divine, if not for any other reason, then because   of the obvious links between death and divinity.  Many parallels can be drawn between Caligula and  

Domitian and Commodus. Referring to themselves  as dominus et deus and Romanus Hercules,   respectively, they drew the ire of many of their  contemporaries, along with modern scholars,   though there is no clear proof that either of  them had used those titles and honors outside  

Of private settings and in an official capacity. The rule of another eccentric Emperor, Nero,   represented a great challenge for the Imperial  cult, not just because of his damnatio memoriae,   but also for the reason that his death meant  that the Julio-Claudian dynasty was no more.  

The new Emperor, Vespasian, could in no way claim  descent from the ancient Kings of Rome, gods or   even the previous Imperial family. To compensate  for this, the senate immediately started drawing   similarities between Vespasian and Augustus,  such as how both of them restored peace to Rome,  

How both were victorious in a civil war and how  both of their lives were marked by a myriad of   good omens and oracles. On one hand, Vespasian  publicly made great effort to further this cause,   while on the other, he was known to boast about  his obscure origins in private. Ironically,  

Several Jewish scholars, such as Josephus  considered Vespasian to be a messianic figure of   Judaism due to the fact that he was “the man from  Judea who ruled the world”. Vespasian approached   his death and future deification with a sense  of humor, with Suetonius remarking that his last  

Words were “I think I’m becoming a god”. As we have previously mentioned,   the Imperial cult quickly became a household cult.  Unfortunately, owing to insufficient evidence,   we know very few details about how it functioned  in the average citizen’s domestic life. Wall  

Paintings and mosaics that were found in private  houses from archeological sites in cities like   Ostia or Pompeii scarcely ever contain any  reference to the Emperors. Certain scholars   do not consider this lack of evidence as a  confirmation of the absence of a household  

Imperial cult. This merely suggests that the  imperial cult was focused on living rulers,   rather than deceased ones. Proof of this can be  found in a letter from Fronto to his pupil, Marcus   Aurelius, which mentions that his likeness can  be found in many private houses and businesses,  

Though painted badly. The little archeological  evidence that exists is mostly represented by   small sculptures of Emperors and members of the  Imperial family. In one peculiar case, however,   a life-sized silver bust of Galba was found at  Herculaneum, which was, presumably, left behind  

After the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. The fact that the Imperial cult had been   disseminated so quickly throughout the Empire  begs the question: how did it spread so far and   so quickly? This is an especially interesting  question, considering the fact that the vast  

Majority of Emperors rarely left Rome and Italy,  so only a handful of citizens had the opportunity   to meet or see them. In these circumstances, the  fabricated image of the Emperor was used as a   substitute for his presence. Coins were minted,  statues were raised, and pictures were painted  

With their likeness, and for the followers of the  Imperial cult, the conviction that a statue of   the Emperor was just as powerful as the Emperor  himself was more than just a primitive belief.   From the late 2nd century AD, inscriptions started  appearing where it is said that an individual or  

A group of people dedicated themselves to  the Emperor’s divine power and his majesty.  The priests of the Imperial cult were no less  ordinary than the flamen of any other Roman   god. Their dress reflected the latest Roman  fashion, and they would have many of the same  

Duties as their colleagues that tended to other  cults. A notable exception to this is the priests   of the Imperial cult in the Eastern provinces,  who were usually extravagantly dressed and wore   a golden crown with the image of Caesar on it.  The rituals likewise followed the Roman model.  

When Augustus was first consecrated, his birthday,  along with the birthdays of Tiberius and his wife,   Livia, was marked by the sacrifice of an ox to  Jupiter. Similarly, during the reign of Nero,   the Emperor’s birthday was celebrated  with sacrifices to the Capitoline Triad,  

The Emperor’s genius, Concordia and Salus  Publica, which translates to public welfare.  Rome’s transformation into an Empire may have  saved it from a premature collapse and unified   the different peoples of Rome behind its rulers.  This was greatly aided by the Imperial cult, which  

Was accepted by people of many faiths and although  it caused certain problems over the centuries, it   also proved to be a bastion of stability that Rome  oftentimes desperately needed. The Roman Imperial   cult proved to be both resilient and malleable,  surviving many a bad Emperor, the Year of the  

Four emperors, the Crisis of the 3rd century  and other tumultuous events. Nevertheless, it   did not survive its confrontation with a religion  almost as old as the cult itself – Christianity. To contextualize Christianity’s rapid spread  within the Roman Empire, we must understand the  

Relationship between Rome and the many foreign  religions it encountered during its expansion.   As we have already mentioned previously, the  Roman state was open to the incorporation and   adoption of foreign deities and religious  customs into their own. The first known   influences were from the Greek and Etruscan  religions, but through Rome’s expansion,  

Many new pantheons and beliefs became part of the  Roman state. Oftentimes, the state itself had a   hand in the adoption of new religious practices.  However, it is also possible that the state simply   sanctioned religious practices that were already  prevalent by that time. This happened frequently  

During times of great crises for Rome. By  sanctioning certain religious practices,   the Roman state ensured that it could  eliminate features that it deemed dangerous   without suppressing the religious practices  completely. To quote Dionysus of Halicarnassus:   “Even though Rome has imported certain rites on  the recommendation of oracles, she celebrates  

Them in accordance with her own traditions.” One of the most serious religious conflicts that   Rome had was with Judaism. Although initially,  the relationship between the Roman and Jewish   communities was amicable, and Jewish communities  prospered throughout the Republic and Empire,  

That all changed during the first half of the  1st century AD. The fundamental conflict between   Jewish monotheism and the Roman Imperial cult,  alongside intolerance and the destabilizing reigns   of Caligula and Nero, precipitated the First  Roman–Jewish war of 68 AD to 74 AD. It was during  

This war that Christianity was first mentioned as  a separate religion from Judaism. In the year 70,   the Jewish Tax was introduced, and due to  the fact that Christians did not pay it,   it was later deduced that they were not Jews. The very first Christians were indeed Jews,  

And were known as Jewish Christians. This first  version of Christianity was in practice very close   to Judaism and was predominantly localized in  Judea and Galilee, where the historical Jesus of   Nazareth held his ministry. After his execution,  his followers began spreading Christianity  

Throughout other parts of the Roman Empire.  It is worth noting that this second version   of Christianity was in many ways more liberal  than the original. Subsequently, the majority   of the new converts were Gentiles – non-Jews. The  observing of the Sabbath, kosher food practices  

And circumcision, among other things, were  not required of these Christians. The fact   that Jesus was also presented as human, as well as  divine, deepened the conflict between Christianity   and the strictly monotheistic and unitarian  Judaism. On the other hand, it was also what  

Made Christianity feel less foreign to the rest of  the Greco-Roman population, who were used to their   gods having physical forms in one way or another. For the early Christians, the form of Christianity   which they adopted depended, for the most part,  on the person who converted them. If they were  

Converted by a person who followed the stricter  Jewish Christianity and adhered to the Mosaic   laws, they would likely practice their religion  in such a strict manner as well. Nevertheless,   in between the liberal, so-called Gentile  Christianity and the rising Rabbinic Judaism, both  

Of which opposed it, Jewish Christianity virtually  disappeared by the end of the 1st century AD.  In spite of the virtually insignificant number of  followers, Christianity proved to have an impact   on life and politics in the empire almost  from the start. According to Jörg Rüpke,  

“The main way in which this manifested itself  was in conflicts within the Jewish community,   which could escalate and cross into society at  large when hostilities broke out between rival   Jewish groups.” Another instance of Christians  catching the attention of the public and higher  

Echelons of Rome’s ruling class was the fact  that they were blamed by Nero for the Great   Fire of Rome in 64 AD. This resulted in the  first known persecution of Christians in Rome.  The very first Christian church is believed to  be the Cenacle, the room where the Last Supper  

Supposedly took place. Otherwise, until  Christianity was legalized by Constantine   the Great, Christians gathered for services and  worship in private houses. These house churches   were convenient due to the fact that they looked  like any other ordinary houses, which enabled  

Christians to gather in private without fear of  persecution and reprisal. One of the oldest house   churches discovered was in Dura-Europos, in Syria.  It contained several rooms and a baptistery,   which is the style of the majority of churches to  this day. The first known genuine, purposely-built  

Church was discovered in Aqaba, modern day Jordan.  Ironically, it was built near the end of the   3rd century, shortly before the beginning of the  severe Christian persecution under Diocletian. The   reason it survived is generally attributed to the  church being at the periphery of the Roman Empire. 

The persecutions were, for the most part, caused  by the disruptive influence of Christianity on   the Roman way of life and the functioning of  the state. The main conflict here was between   Christianity’s seemingly individualistic nature  and the focus on state, city or society by the  

Roman religion. For example, there were several  instances where Roman state officials complained   that due to an increasing number of conversions  to Christianity, the Roman temples were emptying.   This was a problem, as they feared disturbances  to the pax deorum, the peace of the gods, and also  

Because fewer people visiting the temples meant  that there were fewer offerings and donations.  Although the Neronic and Diocletianic persecutions  are the most famous, they were not isolated   cases. That is not to say that state-sanctioned  persecutions were a rule or a perpetual practice,  

As most cases were localized and authorized by  provincial governors or lesser state officials.   The next persecutions happened during the reigns  of Domitian and Marcus Aurelius. Following a lull   in such activities during the next century,  the persecutions resumed under Decius. He  

Made it illegal not to offer sacrifices to  the Roman gods and to the Imperial cult,   exempting only the Jews from this law. Although  these persecutions were severe, they were much   harsher on paper than in practice. Many Roman  governors were wary about creating more martyrs  

For Christianity and preferred to turn a blind eye  to what was happening within their lands as long   as the offences were not particularly grievous. This was not the case with the aforementioned   Dioceltianic persecutions. Starting from 303,  Diocletian and the other tetrarchs signed  

Various edicts aimed at curbing the spread of  Christianity and punishing Christians. Executions,   torture, imprisonment and the confiscation of  property were commonplace during this time.   How pervasive and harsh the state’s measures  were is a matter of intense scholarly debate.   While some historians argue that many accounts  of the persecutions were exaggerated in order  

To create a cult of martyrdom for Christianity,  others consider those accounts to be correct.  Contrary to popular belief, Christianity was  not already the religion of the majority of the   population prior to being officially recognized.  By the beginning of the reign of Marcus Aurelius,  

There were tens of thousands of Christians in  the empire. Christianity underwent explosive   growth during Commodus’ unstable reign and  the Crisis of the 3rd Century, thriving during   chaos and conflict. By the year 300, Christians  represented as much as 10% of the population. 

This apparent success of Christianity can be  attributed to many factors. Without a doubt,   one of them is the religion’s missionary  nature. The very nature of Christianity was   to actively proselytize and seek new converts  whenever and wherever possible. Additionally,   it was a universal religion, which means  that the possible converts were not  

Discriminated against based on ethnicity,  prior religious beliefs and social class.  Christianity also seamlessly melded into Roman  cultural and social life. The Christian gospels   were written with a vocabulary that would  resonate with the majority of the Roman   populace. The most notable examples being  Soteria – salvation, Soter – saviour, and  

Dominus – lord. Even the very word for the gospel  – Euaggelion, was a common staple of the Imperial   cult’s propaganda during the times of Augustus. Another reason for the rise of Christianity   during times of great crises was Christian  charity work. Wars and pestilence brought  

Forth innumerable injuries and illnesses to  the people of the Empire. While the state’s   response to the people’s suffering was adequate,  Christian communities provided aid beyond their   meagre means. When certain cities were suffering  from an outbreak of illness, Christian communities   offered curative and palliative aid to those  afflicted. Doubtlessly, this considerably  

Influenced the swelling of their numbers. Additionally, unlike their Roman counterparts,   Christian priests were mostly available to the  wider public and not considered a social elite.   Virtually any commoner could seek out a priest for  a confession, advice or aid. It was this personal  

Nature between the clergy and the devotees, as  well as regular gatherings, that fostered a sense   of community within the Christian population. Until the late 20th century, the relationship   between paganism and Christianity within the  Roman Empire was believed to be one of a constant  

Struggle, with Christianity coming out as the  sole victor by the end. The reality was not   even remotely so simple. In reality, Christianity  grew and expanded at divergent tempos through the   centuries. Even when Christianity was promoted to  being the official religion of the Empire and many  

Romans converted to Christianity themselves,  paganism still had a great influence. As the   centuries passed, Christianity adopted many traits  from paganism. The date for Christmas was chosen   to coincide with Saturnalia, the holiday of  the god Saturn. In fact, just as the Christmas  

Holidays are referred to as “the most wonderful  time of the year,” so did the Romans think of   Saturnalia as the best time of the year. Even  the tradition of gift-giving, which we closely   associate with Christmas, was a phenomenon adopted  from Saturnalia. Many Christians also engaged in  

Dance before and after mass and sang hymns during  religious processions, which was pagan behaviour.   In Southern Gaul, the bishop Cesarius wrote of  “the wretches who dance and caper about before the   churches of the saints themselves, … and if they  appear at church as Christians, yet they leave the  

Church as pagans-for that custom of dancing is  still with us from pagan ritual”. After it became   the official religion of the Empire, the changes  to architecture that occurred were significantly   less drastic than it is commonly believed. Slight  aesthetic changes were dominant instead. Roman  

Temples were transformed into Christian churches,  and the statues of Roman gods and Imperial   figures in palaces, temples and other important  places were replaced by crosses and the chi ro.  The turning point, or rather the point  of no return for Christianity in Rome,  

Was Constantine the Great’s conversion and  the issuing of the Edict of Milan. Whether   Constantine’s conversion was complete, earnest or  symbolic is debatable, however, its effects were   monumental. As the Emperor was someone that the  people admired and looked up to, many decided to  

Follow in his footsteps and adopt the new religion  themselves. This was also pronounced among the   aristocracy, many of whom became Christians in  order to get into the Emperor’s good graces.  With Christianity officially recognized as  a religion, certain problems arose that were  

Not as evident in previous centuries. As the  religion was decentralized and communication   between various religious centers was lacking,  many different schools of thought developed in   different regions. The first major schism to  develop within Christianity was the Donatist   controversy. Donatism developed during the  Diocletianic purges in Africa, as some Christians  

Falsely or earnestly renounced their faith to  avoid persecution. This was done by turning in   their scriptures to the state. This earned them  the label of traditores: traitors. The Donatists   accused them of apostasy and argued that the  clergy could not accept any of them as members. 

Due to other controversies and several divergent  beliefs, several ecumenical councils were called.   The first such council was the Council of  Nicaea in 325, which led to the adoption   of Nicaean Christianity as the official creed  and its separation from Arian Christianity. The  

Council of Ephesus and the Council of Chalcedon,  in 431 and 451, respectively, led to the Church   of the East and the Oriental Orthodox Church  splitting off from Chalcedonian Christianity,   which was adopted as the official version of  Christianity in both parts of the Roman Empire. 

With only a handful of exceptions, most  future Emperors and pretenders to the   throne were Christian following Constantine’s  conversion. Near the end of the 4th century,   Emperor Theodosius declared Christianity to be the  official religion of the Roman Empire. With the  

Edict of Thessalonica in 380, paganism entered a  period of terminal decline. The change in society   was great, yet the new church adopted many of the  traits of the pagan religious institutions. During   the time when Pope Damasus was bishop of Rome, the  Papacy gained a large amount of temporal power. By  

The fall of the Western Roman Empire, the power  of the Papacy in Rome surpassed that of even the   Senate. Much like the pagan religious leaders  of Rome wielded massive power during the times   of the Republic and early Empire, so did the  Christian church end up wielding. Furthermore,  

Just as religious leaders were frequently chosen  from prominent families when Rome was pagan,   Christian bishops were also chosen from  powerful families, oftentimes through bribes.  During its many centuries of existence, the  religious outlook of Rome changed numerous times,  

Both through osmosis and by force. In the year  476, after many years on its deathbed, the Western   Roman Empire fell. Although Christianity played  a significant role in the latter stages of the   Roman State’s existence, it is safe to say that  Rome, its culture and previous religion exerted  

An equally great influence on Christianity itself,  with numerous customs and traditions that we see   today being able to trace their origin back to  Roman culture. The Roman Empire may have died,   yet aspects of Roman culture survive to this very  day, and an important reason for that is that the  

Final Roman religion, Christianity, survived  the Empire and kept some of its traditions alive   through the centuries. More videos on cultural,  social and religious history are on the way. To   ensure you do not miss it, make sure you are  subscribed and press the bell button. Please,  

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